四級(jí)寫作精選(九篇)

前言：一篇好文章的誕生，需要你不斷地搜集資料、整理思路，本站小編為你收集了豐富的四級(jí)寫作主題范文，僅供參考，歡迎閱讀并收藏。

第1篇：四級(jí)寫作范文

2012年12月四級(jí)寫作考試回顧

從命題的角度來(lái)看，2012年12月四級(jí)寫作最大的新意其實(shí)不是“多題多卷”，而是圖表作文題的出現(xiàn)，而且采用的是全英文命題形式（這樣的命題形式符合命題人“既考寫作又考理解”的考查初衷）。這表明四級(jí)寫作的命題在穩(wěn)中求變，估計(jì)以后會(huì)朝“多題”的方向發(fā)展，題目類型也會(huì)多樣化，因此考生要全面?zhèn)淇?，一定要了解論說(shuō)文、應(yīng)用文、圖表作文與圖畫作文等各種類型作文的寫作方法。而面對(duì)全英文命題形式，考生需要做到的是認(rèn)真審題，避免因理解偏差導(dǎo)致作文跑題。

從考生做題的角度來(lái)看，新的命題形式對(duì)考生寫作提出了新的挑戰(zhàn)。據(jù)筆者對(duì)2012年12月四級(jí)寫作答卷的觀察，寫作題目“Education Pays”的跑題率很高，多半考生的作文都不切題意。之所以出現(xiàn)這一情況，部分原因在于考生準(zhǔn)備不充分，尤其對(duì)于寫圖表作文的備考不足，甚至毫無(wú)準(zhǔn)備，因而在寫作時(shí)存在一定的心理障礙；但更主要的原因應(yīng)該是考生臨場(chǎng)審題不周，導(dǎo)致理解出現(xiàn)偏差。那么面對(duì)四級(jí)寫作考試的新趨勢(shì)，考生要怎樣做才能避免跑題、從容應(yīng)對(duì)呢？

要改善寫作中跑題的情況，考生需要過(guò)好審題關(guān)。具體來(lái)說(shuō)，考生應(yīng)從體裁、話題、內(nèi)容要點(diǎn)、字?jǐn)?shù)要求這四方面進(jìn)行審題。下面以2012年12月四級(jí)寫作題目之一“Education Pays”為例來(lái)具體分析。寫作真題如下。

For this part， you are allowed 30 minutes to write a short essay entitled Education Pays based on the statistics provided in the chart below （Weekly earnings in 2010）. Please give a brief description of the chart and then make comments on it. You should write at least 120 words but no more than 180 words.

審題時(shí)，考生要從上文提到的四個(gè)方面進(jìn)行一一考量。從寫作體裁來(lái)看，考生要寫的應(yīng)該是論說(shuō)文。而筆者閱卷時(shí)就發(fā)現(xiàn)有一位考生將作文寫成一封信，這絕對(duì)是要被扣分的。從話題來(lái)看，考生要寫的話題是“Education Pays”。很多考生望文生義，將寫作話題簡(jiǎn)單理解為“教育付出”，考生如果仔細(xì)閱讀圖表上的標(biāo)題“Education： A Worthy Investment”就會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)，題目給出的話題應(yīng)該是“教育的投資與回報(bào)”。從內(nèi)容要點(diǎn)來(lái)看，考生首先應(yīng)該對(duì)圖表內(nèi)容進(jìn)行簡(jiǎn)要描述（give a brief description of the chart），然后對(duì)圖表內(nèi)容進(jìn)行評(píng)論（make comments on it）。最后，考生要明確寫作字?jǐn)?shù)，題目要求是120～180個(gè)單詞，筆者建議考生將字?jǐn)?shù)限定在140～160個(gè)單詞，因?yàn)?20個(gè)單詞的作文內(nèi)容可能不夠詳實(shí)，但字?jǐn)?shù)太多了又會(huì)增加考生犯錯(cuò)的幾率。

快速提分方略

即將參加2013年6月四級(jí)考試的考生應(yīng)該采取什么快速提分方略呢？很多考生在考試前熱衷于背誦寫作模板，認(rèn)為這樣能幫助自己快速提高寫作分?jǐn)?shù)。但在筆者看來(lái)，單純背誦寫作模板并不是最有效的方法：一方面，考生死背寫作模板的話很容易出現(xiàn)“所背非所考”的情況，最后等于白費(fèi)力氣；另一方面，筆者在四、六級(jí)考試閱卷時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn)，考生使用的模板句式高度重復(fù)，比如“With the development of our society， more and more …”“There has been a heated discussion revolving around this issue of whether people should do …”“Only by doing so， can we …”“As far as I am concerned， …”等句式在答卷中比比皆是，而這樣使用高度重復(fù)的模板句式最終肯定會(huì)影響得分。

如果考生想快速提升寫作分?jǐn)?shù)，筆者建議考生從備考“功能段落”入手。從歷年四級(jí)寫作的寫作要求（無(wú)論是全英文形式還是漢語(yǔ)提綱形式）來(lái)看，四級(jí)寫作題目要求考生撰寫的段落按功能大致可以歸納為以下六種：描述現(xiàn)象、圖畫或圖表（現(xiàn)象段），分析危害（危害段），分析原因（原因段），給出建議（建議段），陳述觀點(diǎn)（觀點(diǎn)段，說(shuō)明支持或反對(duì)）、分析意義（意義段）。因此，如果考生學(xué)會(huì)撰寫這六種功能段落，那么無(wú)論寫作考試如何變化，考生只要按照寫作要求去寫相應(yīng)功能的內(nèi)容或段落即可。從近年真題來(lái)看，現(xiàn)象段、原因段和建議段這三種功能段落被考查到的頻率較高，考生可重點(diǎn)準(zhǔn)備。在考試時(shí)，筆者建議考生將作文寫成三段，其中中間段落為主體，在字?jǐn)?shù)上應(yīng)多于首段和尾段。以2012年12月四級(jí)寫作題目“Education Pays”為例，考生可將首段寫成描述圖表的現(xiàn)象段，將第二段寫成解釋收入差異的原因段，將尾段寫成建議段或觀點(diǎn)段。

那考生該如何學(xué)習(xí)寫功能段落呢？首先，考生可以通過(guò)分析真題范文總結(jié)出各類功能段落的寫作思路；其次，考生需要花大力氣積累各類功能段落的常用句子表達(dá)（簡(jiǎn)稱“功能表達(dá)”）?？忌谶x擇功能表達(dá)時(shí)應(yīng)掌握三個(gè)原則：①實(shí)用性，即積累的表達(dá)可用于寫相應(yīng)的功能段落；②靈活性，即所選擇的表達(dá)應(yīng)該是考生能夠靈活掌握并能根據(jù)題目靈活應(yīng)用的；③簡(jiǎn)潔性，即所選擇的表達(dá)應(yīng)該語(yǔ)言精練，可以有模板的痕跡，但考生應(yīng)該能往里面填入實(shí)質(zhì)內(nèi)容，而不是像通篇廢話似的表達(dá)。下面筆者列舉幾個(gè)常用的功能表達(dá)，供考生體會(huì)。

1.In contemporary society， it has become a trend for _____ to _____.

2.It is advisable for _____ to _____.

3.It is suggested that ______ should strengthen their awareness of ______.

4.Someone should educate， advocate and encourage _____ （not） to _____.

解析：這里的第1個(gè)句子為現(xiàn)象段的功能表達(dá)，第2～4個(gè)句子為建議段的功能表達(dá)?？忌诳荚嚂r(shí)，根據(jù)寫作主題和寫作要求對(duì)上述功能表達(dá)進(jìn)行適當(dāng)?shù)脑~匯替換和結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整，就可以寫出相應(yīng)的句子。例如，針對(duì)這次2012年12月的四級(jí)寫作題目“Education Pays”，考生可以利用第1個(gè)句子來(lái)進(jìn)行現(xiàn)象描述，寫成：“In 2010， it had become a trend for people with higher degrees to earn more money in a week in America.”也可以利用第2個(gè)句子來(lái)進(jìn)行作文最后一段的寫作，如：“It is advisable for youngsters in the US to pursue higher degrees and extensive knowledge.”

按照上文所講的三個(gè)原則，考生在日常學(xué)習(xí)中可以通過(guò)多重途徑積累功能表達(dá)，比如在閱讀中讀到闡述觀點(diǎn)的表達(dá)可以積累，在范文中學(xué)到表述現(xiàn)象的表達(dá)可以積累。退一步說(shuō)，考生即使背誦模板，也不要死背，而要明確所背句子所表達(dá)的功能是什么，這樣考試時(shí)才能靈活應(yīng)用。

備考步驟

以下是筆者總結(jié)的寫作備考步驟，供考生參考。

第一，先通過(guò)“背寫”（即背誦和默寫）的方式積累功能表達(dá)和詞匯。筆者建議英語(yǔ)基礎(chǔ)較差的考生在備考時(shí)先別急著練習(xí)寫作，而是“背寫”一些功能段落和功能表達(dá)，道理很簡(jiǎn)單：考生如果沒有正確的input，就不會(huì)有有效的output。在能熟練背誦和掌握自己積累的功能段落和功能表達(dá)之后，考生再試著利用自己掌握的表達(dá)進(jìn)行模擬寫作，寫一些相似話題的作文。筆者所提到的默寫主要是為了幫助基礎(chǔ)較差的考生練習(xí)拼寫，避免提筆忘詞。此外，考生應(yīng)該積累一些常用的亮點(diǎn)詞匯，用亮點(diǎn)詞匯替換常用詞匯。下面筆者就列舉一些亮點(diǎn)詞匯，供考生參考。

1.用exceedingly/extremely/rather替換very；

2.用an army of/a great many/a host of替換a lot of；

3.用advancement替換development；

4.用positive/favorable/promising/perfect/pleasurable/excellent/outstanding/superior替換good；

5.用give rise to/lead to/result in/trigger替換cause；

6.用harbor the idea that/take the attitude that/hold the view that替換think that；

7.用beneficial/rewarding替換helpful；

8.用bear in mind that替換remember that；

9.用enjoy/possess替換have；

10.用shopper/consumer/purchaser替換customer。

第二，善于進(jìn)行階段總結(jié)?？忌鷤淇紩r(shí)，每經(jīng)過(guò)一個(gè)階段（如兩周）都要問自己幾個(gè)問題：自己所背誦的功能表達(dá)可以用來(lái)寫什么類型的文章？該類文章的相關(guān)詞匯或表達(dá)有哪些？由題目關(guān)鍵詞可以聯(lián)想到哪些相關(guān)表達(dá)？考生要謹(jǐn)記，沒有復(fù)習(xí)與鞏固，就沒有提高。

第2篇：四級(jí)寫作范文

關(guān)鍵詞： 大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)考試 寫作技巧 英語(yǔ)寫作

一、具體評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)

大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)大綱寫作要求學(xué)生根據(jù)試卷上給出的題目，或規(guī)定的情景，或圖畫，或給出的段首句或給出的關(guān)鍵詞，在30分鐘內(nèi)寫出100—120詞的短文。具體評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)如下：

2分——條理不清，思路紊亂，語(yǔ)言支離破碎。筆者用四字概括就是亂七八糟。

5分——基本切題。表達(dá)思想不清楚，連貫性差。大部分句子均有錯(cuò)誤，且多數(shù)為嚴(yán)重錯(cuò)誤。筆者用四字概括就是稀里糊涂。

8分——基本切題。有些地方思想表達(dá)不夠清楚，文字勉強(qiáng)連貫；語(yǔ)言錯(cuò)誤相當(dāng)多，其中有一些是嚴(yán)重錯(cuò)誤。筆者用四字概括就是馬馬虎虎。

11分——切題。表達(dá)思想清楚，文字連貫，但有少量語(yǔ)言錯(cuò)誤。筆者用四字概括就是清清楚楚。

14分——切題。表達(dá)思想清楚，文字通順，連貫性較好?；旧蠠o(wú)語(yǔ)言錯(cuò)誤，即僅有個(gè)別小錯(cuò)。筆者用四字概括就是漂漂亮亮。

這些標(biāo)準(zhǔn)看似簡(jiǎn)單，做起來(lái)卻不易。據(jù)統(tǒng)計(jì)，普通院校學(xué)生的四級(jí)作文平均分在7分左右，重點(diǎn)院校的學(xué)生作文平均分也是8分出頭，這與9分的及格線相去甚遠(yuǎn)。⑴英語(yǔ)寫作是中國(guó)學(xué)生的薄弱環(huán)節(jié)。學(xué)生往往下筆艱難。對(duì)自己寫出的東西，是好是壞，是錯(cuò)是對(duì)，心中一點(diǎn)兒把握都沒有。參加四級(jí)考試的時(shí)候，對(duì)寫作題往往應(yīng)付了事，只圖得一點(diǎn)分，不要拉總分的后腿。很少有學(xué)生想在此題上爭(zhēng)取高分。

二、原因分析

產(chǎn)生以上現(xiàn)象的原因有三：一是重視不夠，二是缺少練習(xí)，三是不知應(yīng)試技巧。大學(xué)英語(yǔ)的教學(xué)通常為一至兩年，教師主要精力都用于抓聽說(shuō)和閱讀教學(xué)。雖然每個(gè)單元課文都有寫作練習(xí)，但是老師布置學(xué)生學(xué)做的并不多，因?yàn)樽魑氖丈蟻?lái)很難批改，工作量非常大。大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教師一般每人教授2—4個(gè)班。一百多名學(xué)生，一百多篇作文收上來(lái)，無(wú)異于抓虱子上頭，怎么捉也捉不完。只有在大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)備考的三周，抓綜合測(cè)試時(shí)分一點(diǎn)點(diǎn)精力去抓作文?？梢哉f(shuō)，英語(yǔ)寫作一直都處于被人遺忘的角落和大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)的邊緣地帶，這就造成了學(xué)生畏懼寫作，無(wú)從下筆的局面。

三、心得體會(huì)

其實(shí)，大學(xué)英語(yǔ)作文的教學(xué)，只要教學(xué)得法，費(fèi)時(shí)不多就可以得到很好的效果。下面是筆者經(jīng)過(guò)一段時(shí)間的思考而得出的心得體會(huì)，也可以叫做“應(yīng)試技巧”，提出來(lái)與同行商榷。歸納起來(lái)有三點(diǎn)：求索、模仿、試筆。

1.求索

所謂“求索”，就是命題規(guī)律分析。大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)考試作文試題的命題形式主要有兩種：提綱作文和圖表圖畫作文。提綱作文主要有以下幾種形式。

（1）就同一問題的兩種不同看法分析原因，然后談?wù)勛约旱目捶ā?/p>

如2006年12月的四級(jí)作文題：許多人喜歡在除夕夜觀看春節(jié)晚會(huì)，但有些人提出取消春節(jié)晚會(huì)。談?wù)勎业目捶ā?/p>

又如2008年6月四級(jí)作文題：娛樂活動(dòng)多種多樣，娛樂活動(dòng)可能使人們受益，也可能有危害性。作為大學(xué)生我的看法如何。

（2）就某一事實(shí)說(shuō)明情況，分析原因，展望未來(lái)。

如2009年6月四級(jí)作文題：Free Admission to museums.越來(lái)越多的博物館免費(fèi)對(duì)外開放的目的是什么？也會(huì)帶來(lái)一些問題；你的看法？

又如2011年6四級(jí)作文題：Online Shopping（網(wǎng)上購(gòu)物）：現(xiàn)在網(wǎng)上購(gòu)物已成為一種時(shí)尚，網(wǎng)上購(gòu)物有很多好處，但也有不少問題。我的建議……

（3）就某一問題進(jìn)行分析，指出危害性，提出解決辦法。

如2010年6月四級(jí)作文題：Due Attention Should Be Given to Spelling（要充分重視單詞的拼寫）：如今不少學(xué)生在學(xué)習(xí)中不重視拼寫，出現(xiàn)這種情況的原因是……為了改變這種狀況，我認(rèn)為……

又如2010年12月四級(jí)作文題：How Should Parents Help Children to Be Independent？目前不少父母為孩子包辦一切，為了讓孩子獨(dú)立，父母應(yīng)該……

（4）就某一情況舉例加以說(shuō)明。

如2007年12月四級(jí)作文題：各大學(xué)開設(shè)了各種各樣的選修課，學(xué)生因?yàn)楦鞣N原因選擇了不同的選修課，以你自己為例……

（5）典型的書信寫作。

如2002年1月四級(jí)作文題：就本校食堂衛(wèi)生狀況給校長(zhǎng)寫一封抱怨信。

又如2004年1月四級(jí)作文題：關(guān)于報(bào)考大學(xué)專業(yè)問題給朋友回信。

圖表作文時(shí)根據(jù)圖表提供的圖畫，數(shù)字或者文字等信息進(jìn)行歸納總結(jié)，分析規(guī)律，把握主題，反映某種現(xiàn)象的作文。

如2002年6月四級(jí)作文題：Student Use of Computers.根據(jù)圖表闡述大學(xué)生使用計(jì)算機(jī)的情況并解釋原因。

圖表作文在寫作中應(yīng)注意：（1）對(duì)圖表做簡(jiǎn)要的主題介紹；（2）進(jìn)行橫向，縱向比較，尋找規(guī)律性信息；（3）分析原因，尋找規(guī)律，把握主題；（4）根據(jù)信息得出結(jié)論。

2.模仿

一切作文，都是從模仿開始的。每個(gè)題型都打印兩篇范文，供學(xué)生模仿。這十多篇范文，就是學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)寫作的啟蒙老師。要求學(xué)生熟讀，最好能背誦。這樣，學(xué)生就掌握了一定數(shù)量的句型和表達(dá)方法，應(yīng)試時(shí)可靈活運(yùn)用，“他山之石，可以攻玉”。

3.試筆

教師從網(wǎng)上下載最近十年的四級(jí)作文題，要求學(xué)生每個(gè)題型都寫一兩篇。教師也可根據(jù)經(jīng)驗(yàn)和想象，出一些作文題供學(xué)生練習(xí)。教師不必收上來(lái)修改，可由學(xué)生自己相互評(píng)改，選一些比較優(yōu)秀的作文打印出來(lái)讓學(xué)生相互學(xué)習(xí)。教師也可以重點(diǎn)在課堂上講解一兩篇。應(yīng)對(duì)一個(gè)考試，學(xué)生不寫上8—10篇作文是不行的。

笨鳥先飛早入林，從大學(xué)一年級(jí)第一學(xué)期開始，教師就要有計(jì)劃地抓四級(jí)作文，費(fèi)時(shí)不必過(guò)多，每周15分鐘就夠了。因?yàn)榇蠖鄶?shù)寫作是放到課外去進(jìn)行的。一年抓下來(lái)，我相信學(xué)生在應(yīng)試時(shí)，做作文題就胸有成竹了。一些肯鉆研的學(xué)生，有希望在作文上得到高分。

參考文獻(xiàn)：

[1]唐小濤.從大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)作文考試探大學(xué)英語(yǔ)寫作教學(xué)[J].大學(xué)英語(yǔ)（學(xué)術(shù)版），2005.

[2]楊慧中.從四六級(jí)考試看我國(guó)大學(xué)生當(dāng)前的實(shí)際英語(yǔ)能力[J].外語(yǔ)界，2000.

第3篇：四級(jí)寫作范文

構(gòu)思簡(jiǎn)單 少犯錯(cuò)誤

中心突出 層次分明

借助經(jīng)典 名句俗諺

重在變化 避免重復(fù)

卷面整潔，書寫清楚

1、打好腹稿再動(dòng)筆，減少涂改。

2、書寫漂亮的當(dāng)然更好，達(dá)不到的最起碼也要工整。

3、使用黑色水筆作答，白紙黑字，這樣能夠有效提高整潔度。

構(gòu)思簡(jiǎn)單 少犯錯(cuò)誤

根據(jù)閱卷經(jīng)驗(yàn)，四級(jí)作文的主要錯(cuò)誤集中在思路、標(biāo)點(diǎn)、時(shí)態(tài)、單復(fù)數(shù)、結(jié)構(gòu)等五個(gè)方面。

英語(yǔ)四級(jí)錯(cuò)誤十錯(cuò)十察

1.句子成分殘缺

We always working till late at night before taking exams.(誤)

We are always working till late at night before taking exams(正)

2.句子成分多余

This test is end, but there is another test is waiting forus. (誤)

One test ends, but another is waiting for you. (正)

3.主謂不一致

Someone/Somebody think that reading should be selective. (誤)

Someone/Somebody thinks that reading should be selective. (正)

4.動(dòng)詞時(shí)態(tài)誤用

I was walking along the road, and there are not so many cars on the street. (誤)

I was walking along the road and there were not so many vehicles on the street. (正)

5.動(dòng)詞語(yǔ)態(tài)誤用

The driver of the red car was died in the accident. (誤)

The driver of the red car died in the accident. (正)

6.詞類混淆

It is my point that reading must be selectively. (誤)

In my opinion, reading must be selective. (正)

Honest is so important for every person. (誤)

Honesty is so important for everyone. (正)

7.名詞可數(shù)與不可數(shù)的誤用

In modern society, people are under various pressures(誤)

In modern society, people are under various kinds of pressure. (正)

8.動(dòng)詞及物與不及物的誤用

Because of his excellent performance, the boss rose his salary. (誤)

Because of his excellent performance, the boss raised his salary. (正)

9.動(dòng)賓搭配不當(dāng)

We must make solutions to the problem. (誤)

We must find a solution to the problem. (正)

It also may help you to make success. (誤)

It may also help you succeed/obtain your goal. (正)

10.根據(jù)中文逐字硬譯

Let us touch the outside world of campus.

Let’s keep in touch with the world outside of the campus.

第4篇：四級(jí)寫作范文

關(guān)鍵詞：大學(xué) 英語(yǔ) 四級(jí)考試 寫作

一、大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)寫作現(xiàn)狀

大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)考試當(dāng)中學(xué)生經(jīng)常會(huì)因?yàn)樽陨碛⒄Z(yǔ)的聽說(shuō)讀寫幾方面的能力差影響考試的通過(guò)率，一般大學(xué)生都把英語(yǔ)四級(jí)考試看成是大學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程中最為關(guān)鍵的一項(xiàng)考試。分析大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)考試，其題型主要包括寫作、閱讀、聽力和填空以及漢譯英等幾項(xiàng)內(nèi)容，在這些考試內(nèi)容當(dāng)中，寫作是比較重要的一項(xiàng)內(nèi)容。大學(xué)四級(jí)英語(yǔ)考試要求學(xué)生在30分鐘內(nèi)完成120字的英語(yǔ)作文，這項(xiàng)要求對(duì)于英語(yǔ)能力一般的學(xué)生來(lái)說(shuō)確實(shí)有一定難度。想要順利的完成英語(yǔ)四級(jí)考試中的作文內(nèi)容，學(xué)生需要具備扎實(shí)的語(yǔ)言基礎(chǔ)和良好的表達(dá)習(xí)慣，很多學(xué)生不敢下手寫，對(duì)于英語(yǔ)四級(jí)寫作有畏難情緒，文章內(nèi)容表達(dá)不準(zhǔn)確，條理不清晰，很多學(xué)生還不習(xí)慣用英語(yǔ)思維展開文章敘述。通過(guò)對(duì)四級(jí)考試的特點(diǎn)進(jìn)行分析，結(jié)合現(xiàn)在大學(xué)生的認(rèn)知水平，提出了能夠強(qiáng)化大學(xué)生英語(yǔ)四級(jí)作文水平的寫作技巧。

二、大學(xué)生英語(yǔ)四級(jí)寫作技巧

1、通過(guò)審題確定體裁

在寫作之前首先要確定文章體裁，其體裁主要有議論文、應(yīng)用文、圖表文等多種文體，只有明確要求的題材，才能按照文體特征展開寫作。

2、確定主題句

在分析寫作要求之后，學(xué)生要確定寫作思路，首先要寫出文章的主題句，由此引開自己的寫作思維，保證主題句切合題目要求，和表述對(duì)象相吻合。段落的主題句對(duì)全段有引領(lǐng)的作用，一個(gè)優(yōu)秀的主題句不僅能夠切合題目，還能因此展開文章拓展，幫助讀者確定文章主旨。所以，在寫作的時(shí)候要保證主題句切題。

3、三段作文法

大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)考試主要考察議論文的寫作，一般以論文都采取三段式的結(jié)構(gòu)寫法，即開頭段提出論題，中間段開展論證，結(jié)尾段得出結(jié)論，其寫作技巧主要由此展開

第一，開頭段。

好的文章開頭能夠引起人閱讀的興趣，文章開頭要結(jié)合主體內(nèi)容引出后文內(nèi)容，爭(zhēng)取簡(jiǎn)明生動(dòng)的提出主題引發(fā)讀者興趣，揭示主題內(nèi)容，確定寫作目的，激感共鳴。作文開頭主要有以下記住寫法，首先是引用法，由名人名言或諺語(yǔ)等代表他人論點(diǎn)的內(nèi)容作為文章開頭；其次是定義法，解釋并定義文章的關(guān)鍵詞語(yǔ)，確定寫作范圍和文章主題；再次是數(shù)字法，根據(jù)其他報(bào)道的具有說(shuō)服力的數(shù)字作為開頭，引起讀者注意；還有就是開門見山發(fā)，在開始點(diǎn)明自身觀點(diǎn)并展開論述；再有就是間接開頭法，由他人論點(diǎn)敘述入手提出個(gè)人看法；最后是概括法，概括文章內(nèi)容現(xiàn)狀，以此引出主題。當(dāng)然，在實(shí)際寫作過(guò)程中可以融合多種寫作手法引出文章內(nèi)容。

第二，中間段。

文章的中間段是發(fā)展延伸文章首段所提出的文章主題的部分，中間段和文章主題聯(lián)系緊密，主體對(duì)文章中間段有限制作用，中間段要圍繞主題觀點(diǎn)展開討論，也就是文章中間段要結(jié)合不同的說(shuō)明角度，對(duì)文章的主題展開敘述和論證，一般中間段主要通過(guò)例證法、比較法和因果法等多種方式展開論證。

第三，結(jié)尾段。

文章的結(jié)尾段是總結(jié)并升華文章思想的部分，其對(duì)主題有進(jìn)一步的強(qiáng)化作用。優(yōu)秀的尾段應(yīng)該簡(jiǎn)潔明朗，寓意深遠(yuǎn)。也就是說(shuō)，文章的結(jié)尾段要和開頭相照應(yīng)，并且要達(dá)到總結(jié)全文的目的，留給讀者深刻的印象。文章結(jié)尾段的寫法主要有以下幾種，首先就是總結(jié)法或者重述法，也就是在文章的結(jié)尾部分重新強(qiáng)調(diào)文章的主要思想，要在思想一致的同時(shí)改變?cè)兄黝}句的句式和措辭；其次就是建議法，也就是分析比較前文的問題，最終提出解決方法和建議，這種方法一般用在具有爭(zhēng)論和說(shuō)理性的文章寫作中；再有就是預(yù)測(cè)法，結(jié)合前文的論點(diǎn)，分析其日后的發(fā)展，也可以面向讀者提出警告和期望；還有就是展望及期望法，寫出對(duì)未來(lái)的展望和對(duì)讀者的行為期望；最后就是反問法，也就是通過(guò)問句的形式肯定展現(xiàn)的意義，實(shí)現(xiàn)對(duì)文章主旨的強(qiáng)化，由此刺激讀者思考。

這些內(nèi)容都是對(duì)大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)考試中寫作常用的三段法的寫作技巧的總結(jié)，除此之外考生要注意對(duì)文章進(jìn)行篇幅安排，保證滿足文章字?jǐn)?shù)要求的同時(shí)不超過(guò)其最高標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。寫的越多，就越有可能暴露自身的語(yǔ)言弱點(diǎn)，還會(huì)造成不必要的時(shí)間浪費(fèi)，對(duì)文章主題的深入也會(huì)有不良影響。我們可以在大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)考試寫作中運(yùn)用三段式方法，采取十二句作文法，每一段寫四句話，這四句話包括主題句、兩三句拓展句和結(jié)論句共四句內(nèi)容，每句保持十多個(gè)字的內(nèi)容，這不僅滿足了作文的字?jǐn)?shù)要求，還能避免言多有失的狀況出現(xiàn)。

三、強(qiáng)化修改

在四級(jí)考試的時(shí)候，學(xué)生可以重點(diǎn)考慮以下幾方面對(duì)文章進(jìn)行修改。首先就是檢查大小寫和單詞拼寫的正確定；其次是檢查動(dòng)詞的時(shí)態(tài)和語(yǔ)態(tài)以及人稱應(yīng)用，還有主謂關(guān)系是否準(zhǔn)確；再次要考慮詞性的準(zhǔn)確定；還有就是思考名詞單復(fù)數(shù)和代詞、指代關(guān)系的一致性；另外就是句子的完整程度和標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號(hào)的正確運(yùn)用。

四、結(jié)論

通過(guò)分析可知，只有掌握正確的寫作方法，在平時(shí)加強(qiáng)練習(xí)，提高語(yǔ)言基礎(chǔ)，融合寫作技巧，才能寫出滿足考試要求的作文。

參考文獻(xiàn)：

第5篇：四級(jí)寫作范文

的課題。本文通過(guò)對(duì)非英語(yǔ)專業(yè)大學(xué)生四級(jí)后的實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作課程問卷調(diào)查和訪談，對(duì)所得數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行定性和定量綜合分析，并結(jié)合實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作教學(xué)的特點(diǎn)，從教學(xué)內(nèi)容，教學(xué)方法，教學(xué)方式和手段等方面對(duì)后續(xù)課程的教學(xué)設(shè)計(jì)進(jìn)行探討。

關(guān)鍵詞：實(shí)用英語(yǔ)；寫作課程；大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)

中圖分類號(hào)：G642.3 文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼：A 文章編號(hào)：1002-4107（2012）12-0053-04

實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作技能是大學(xué)生英語(yǔ)綜合能力的一個(gè)有機(jī)組成部分，也是社會(huì)要求的適應(yīng)性人才所具備的基本交際能力。然而，目前，大多數(shù)高校的大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)尚未開設(shè)基礎(chǔ)寫作課，只有少數(shù)學(xué)校在四級(jí)后將實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作作為選修或是后續(xù)課程開設(shè)。探討如何以實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作教學(xué)為切入點(diǎn)，培養(yǎng)非英語(yǔ)專業(yè)學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)綜合應(yīng)用能力和交際能力無(wú)疑是一個(gè)重要的課題。

在國(guó)內(nèi)大學(xué)英語(yǔ)寫作研究中，寫作教學(xué)一直是研究者關(guān)注的焦點(diǎn)（黃建濱，于書林[1]，秦朝霞[2]，王文宇，王立非[3]，姚蘭，程驪妮[4]，趙俊峰等[5]）。大多數(shù)文章是“以具體教學(xué)實(shí)踐為研究基點(diǎn)”，“具體探討各類教學(xué)方法在實(shí)踐中的應(yīng)用”[6]，而關(guān)于實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作課程的整體研究比較匱乏。楊俊、賈國(guó)棟通過(guò)介紹華南理工大學(xué)實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作教學(xué)的課程設(shè)計(jì)與具體實(shí)踐[7]，探討將實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作納入大學(xué)英語(yǔ)精讀課堂的新模式；黃東花以英語(yǔ)專業(yè)二年級(jí)學(xué)生為研究對(duì)象進(jìn)行一次采用體裁教學(xué)法進(jìn)行實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作教學(xué)的實(shí)證研究[8]；羅立勝等介紹清華大學(xué)自1997年以來(lái)以實(shí)用性英語(yǔ)教學(xué)為基點(diǎn)開展的大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)改革[9]，其主要目的是為了加強(qiáng)學(xué)習(xí)者的語(yǔ)言產(chǎn)出技能，即口語(yǔ)和寫作，其改革的主要對(duì)象是英語(yǔ)整體水平達(dá)到大綱要求的非英語(yǔ)專業(yè)本科生。而對(duì)于如何在大學(xué)英語(yǔ)后續(xù)階段進(jìn)一步提高學(xué)生的寫作能力，尤其是實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作技能的研究比較少見。本文將在問卷調(diào)查的基礎(chǔ)上，分析四級(jí)后A層學(xué)生對(duì)實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作教學(xué)的認(rèn)識(shí)和需求，以期為大學(xué)英語(yǔ)后續(xù)階段實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作課程的開設(shè)提供參考和借鑒。

一、調(diào)查對(duì)象及方法

（一）研究對(duì)象

華中農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)2009級(jí)非英語(yǔ)專業(yè)本科生，其中A層學(xué)生（新生在入學(xué)英語(yǔ)分級(jí)考試后，被分為A、B兩個(gè)層次， 分別進(jìn)入二、一級(jí)學(xué)習(xí)），1―3學(xué)期完成基礎(chǔ)階段的英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)，參加全國(guó)大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)考試，第四學(xué)期選修指定后續(xù)課程。這些學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)整體水平良好，具備了較強(qiáng)的英語(yǔ)讀寫能力。本次調(diào)查在六個(gè)選修并完成了實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作課程的班級(jí)中進(jìn)行，參加人數(shù)合計(jì)213人，收回有效問卷178份。

（二）調(diào)查工具和方法

采用問卷調(diào)查法和學(xué)生訪談方式。調(diào)查問卷共有13道選擇題，主要涉及學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)、學(xué)習(xí)需求和學(xué)習(xí)效果、教學(xué)方法、教學(xué)模式、教材和教學(xué)設(shè)置等教與學(xué)兩方面的問題。完成問卷后，隨機(jī)挑選不同專業(yè)的8名學(xué)生進(jìn)行面談，對(duì)訪談進(jìn)行錄音和文字轉(zhuǎn)寫。面談主要問及學(xué)生完成問卷時(shí)的主觀認(rèn)識(shí)、態(tài)度及原因。結(jié)合轉(zhuǎn)寫錄音材料和問卷所得數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行定性和定量綜合分析。

二、調(diào)查結(jié)果及分析

（一）關(guān)于學(xué)

1.學(xué)習(xí)動(dòng)機(jī)

表1 希望進(jìn)一步提高 表2 是否對(duì)今后的學(xué)業(yè)和

的英語(yǔ)應(yīng)用能力中 職業(yè)發(fā)展有幫助

表1顯示：在“希望通過(guò)大學(xué)英語(yǔ)后續(xù)階段的學(xué)習(xí)進(jìn)一步提高的英語(yǔ)應(yīng)用能力中”，近一半的學(xué)生將口語(yǔ)能力排在首位，僅19.1%的學(xué)生選擇寫作能力。雖然兩個(gè)比例懸殊，但在五項(xiàng)能力中，寫作能力僅次于口語(yǔ)能力。參與訪談的學(xué)生普遍認(rèn)為，口語(yǔ)是使用最頻繁、最薄弱的環(huán)節(jié)。口語(yǔ)和寫作都是主觀性強(qiáng)的語(yǔ)言輸出能力，是學(xué)生最薄弱的兩項(xiàng)。然而，在目前的大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中，對(duì)寫作教學(xué)的重視程度卻遠(yuǎn)不及口語(yǔ)教學(xué)。因此，絕大部分學(xué)生希望通過(guò)選修實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作課程提高寫作能力。

表2顯示：超過(guò)九成（92.1%）的學(xué)生認(rèn)為實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作能力的培養(yǎng)對(duì)其“今后的學(xué)業(yè)和職業(yè)發(fā)展有幫助”或是“非常有幫助”。具體說(shuō)來(lái)，71.3%的學(xué)生認(rèn)為寫作課有助于他們“參加國(guó)家英語(yǔ)六級(jí)考試、碩士研究生入學(xué)英語(yǔ)考試”；66.3%的學(xué)生認(rèn)為實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作能力的培養(yǎng)有利于將來(lái)“從事涉外交際的日?；顒?dòng)和業(yè)務(wù)往來(lái)中的書面交流”。接近一半（48.3%）的學(xué)生認(rèn)識(shí)到寫作課對(duì)其“進(jìn)行學(xué)術(shù)英語(yǔ)論文的閱讀與寫作”有幫助。僅有36.5%的學(xué)生認(rèn)為較強(qiáng)的實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作能力可以助其“出國(guó)尋找更好的受教育和工作的機(jī)會(huì)”。被調(diào)查者均是大二學(xué)生，一方面尚未擺脫應(yīng)試教育的影響，對(duì)學(xué)業(yè)發(fā)展的認(rèn)識(shí)仍局限于通過(guò)各種考試；另一方面尚未開始專業(yè)課的學(xué)習(xí)，對(duì)學(xué)術(shù)論文的閱讀和寫作接觸甚少。此外， 農(nóng)林院校大學(xué)生出國(guó)謀發(fā)展的比例不及其他綜合性大學(xué)。

2.學(xué)習(xí)需求

表3 本學(xué)期開設(shè)的寫作課的哪些模塊吸引你（多項(xiàng)選

擇）

表4 開設(shè)實(shí)用英語(yǔ)寫作系列課程的必要性

第6篇：四級(jí)寫作范文

It’s found that Chinese college students’ English language ability has greatly improved in recent years(from 1992 to 2003). However， the English writing ability is almost stagnant. In order to find out the reasons for this phenomenon， this thesis， based on the previous findings， analyzes the content validity of CET-4/6 writing tests， and compares the scoring criteria of CET-4/6 writing tests with those of College Entrance Examination(CEE) and with Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).The analysis and comparison point out such problems as the content validity， the requirements in the number of words， the form of the proposition， the scoring criteria. The existence of these problems has certain harmful backwash effects on college English writing teaching of college students， for example， the deficiency of the content， the dullness of the writing， etc. In line with the previous findings， the paper proposes some effective suggestions about college English writing test. It is hoped that the present study will be helpful for both college English writing and English teaching.

[Key Words] CET-4/6; writing tests; writing teaching; content validity; backwash effects.

【摘 要】寫作測(cè)試是一種綜合測(cè)試，它不僅能考查學(xué)生的輸出性技能，同時(shí)也能考查學(xué)生的接收性技能，不僅可以測(cè)驗(yàn)學(xué)生的詞匯、用法、語(yǔ)法等語(yǔ)言要素，也可以測(cè)驗(yàn)學(xué)生的組織能力、分析能力、表達(dá)能力、邏輯推理、對(duì)各種語(yǔ)體的掌握等。它能同時(shí)測(cè)試語(yǔ)言的各個(gè)層次和范疇，所以說(shuō)，寫作測(cè)試能真正反映一個(gè)人的語(yǔ)言能力。

基于近十幾年來(lái)（1992--2003）的情況調(diào)查，我國(guó)大學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)水平有了很大的提高，但是英語(yǔ)寫作能力一直停滯不前。本文就其原因?qū)Υ髮W(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)、六級(jí)考試中的寫作測(cè)試部分的內(nèi)容效度加以分析，并把寫作測(cè)試部分的評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)與高考、美國(guó)托福考試等考試中的英語(yǔ)寫作的評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)進(jìn)行比較之后發(fā)現(xiàn)，大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四、六級(jí)考試的寫作測(cè)試的內(nèi)容效度、詞數(shù)要求、命題形式和評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)等都存在一定的問題。這對(duì)大學(xué)生英語(yǔ)寫作教學(xué)產(chǎn)生了一定的負(fù)面影響，同時(shí)也暴露了大學(xué)生寫作中存在的一些普遍問題，例如內(nèi)容貧乏、語(yǔ)言干癟等。本文分析了寫作測(cè)試和寫作教學(xué)存在的多種問題，并對(duì)此提出了一些建議，旨在提高學(xué)生的寫作能力和改進(jìn)寫作教學(xué)。

【關(guān)鍵詞】大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四、六級(jí)考試；寫作測(cè)試；寫作教學(xué)；內(nèi)容效度；后效作用。

1.Introduction

In recent years， the college students’ English ability has apparently improved.

However， students have hardly made any progress in English writing ability. The scoring rates in such parts as listening， reading， vocabulary and grammar of CET-4/6 have gradually increased， but the average marks of the writing part always range from 6 to 7. In order to find out the reasons for the low marks in the writing part， many experts and scholars have done a lot of investigation and research. Some believe that it has something to do with the examination-oriented education system which underestimates students’ writing ability[1].Some think that the research of theories on college English writing teaching is not enough[2]. All these analyses have yielded certain positive results. However， they haven’t integrated testing with teaching organically， proceeding either simply from CET-4/6 or simply from college English　writing teaching. This thesis based on a detailed analysis of the content validity and the scoring criteria of writing tests in CET-4/6， points out the harmful backwash effects of CET-4/6 writing tests on college English writing teaching， and provides several useful suggestions on college English writing teaching.

2.Development of Language Testing

2.1 Different approaches to language testing

“Carroll(1968) provides the following definition of a test: a psychological or education test is a procedure designed to elicit certain behavior from which one can make inferences about certain characteristics of an inpidual” [3].

Generally speaking， there are three main periods in the development of language testing: pre-scientific testing， psychometric-structuralist testing， communicative language testing (or psycholinguistic-sociolinguistic testing). Accordingly， “there exist four main approaches to language testing: the essay-translation approach， the structuralist approach， the integrative approach， and the communicative approach”[4].

In the pre-scientific stage，　people believe that language testing just means checking　whether or not students have remembered the knowledge of a language.　The essay-translation approach is commonly referred to as the pre-scientific stage of language testing. No special skill or expertise in testing is required: the subjective judgment of the teacher is considered to be of paramount importance. Tests usually consist of essay writing， translation， and grammatical analysis. The test also have a heavy literary and cultural bias[5].

In 1900s， the structural linguistics and behaviorist psychology occupied the leading position. Structural linguistics believes that language is a system of speech sounds， arbitrarily assigned to the objects， stated and referred for human communication. The theory of behaviorist psychology is also called S-R theory. It is characterized by emphasis on externally observable response(R) to specific stimuli(S). Behaviorist sees language as a series of learned response to stimuli. Under the influence of the structural linguistics and behaviorist psychology， the psychometric-structuralist testing and the structuralist approach come into being. This approach is characterized by the view that language learning is chiefly concerned with the systematic acquisition of a set of habits. It draws on the work of structural linguistics， especially the importance of contrastive analysis and the need to identify and measure the learner’s mastery of the discrete elements of the target language : phonology， vocabulary and grammar. The skill of listening， speak， reading， and writing are also separated from each other as much as possible because it is considered essential to test one thing at a time. As a result， the need for statistical measures of reliability and validity is considered to be of the utmost importance: hence the popularity of the discrete point testing. Discrete point testing refers to the testing of one element at one time， item by item. Multiple choice is the typical example of it .

However， discrete point testing neglects the context and discourse. In the 1970s， people who believe in the unitary competence hypothesis(UCH) advocate the integrative approach .This approach involves the testing of language in context and is thus concerned primarily with meaning and the total communicative effect of discourse. Thus， integrative tests are concerned with a global view of proficiency and are often designed to assess the learner’s ability to use two or more skills simultaneously. Integrative tests are best characterized by the use of cloze testing and of dictation [6] as well as writing composition， making notes while listening to a lecture， etc.

Nowadays， the communicative language testing becomes more and more important and popular. Testing means not communicative testing of language but the testing of communicative language. Communicative tests are concerned primarily with how language is used in communication. It aims to incorporate tasks which approximate as closely as possible to those facing the students in real life. Success is judged in terms of the effectiveness of the communication which takes place rather than formal linguistic accuracy [7]. 2.2 Relationship between testing and teaching

Both language testing and language teaching are based on linguistics and psychology. They followed the disciplinary trends in linguistic and psychological theories. Both testing and teaching are so closely interrelated that it is virtually impossible to work in either field without being constantly concerned with the other. The proper relationship between testing and teaching is that of partnership. Tests may be constructed primarily as devices to reinforce learning and to motivate the students or primarily as a means of assessing the students’ performance in the language. Standardized tests and public examinations， in fact， may exert such a considerable

Influence on the average teachers that they are often helpful to decide the kind of teaching that takes place before the tests. Over the years language teachers who want to be able to use tests as part of their classroom teaching[8].

The effect of testing and learning is known as backwash [9]. Backwash can be harmful or beneficial. If a test is regarded as important， the preparation for it can come to dominate all teaching and learning activities. And if the test content and test techniques are at variance with the objectives of the course， then there is likely to be harmful backwash. If the skill of writing， for example， is tested only by multiple-choice items， then there is great pressure to practice such items rather than practice the skill of writing itself. This is clearly undesirable. However， backwash needs not always be harmful; indeed it can be positively beneficial. When the teaching is good and proper， and the testing is not， teaching is then likely to suffer from harmful backwash. When teaching is poor or inappropriate， testing is then able to exert a beneficial backwash. Testing should be supportive of good teaching and ， when necessary， exert a corrective influence on bad teaching. If testing always had a beneficial backwash on teaching， it would have a much better reputation amongst teachers.

Besides， the teaching profession can also make two contributions to the improvement of testing: they can write better tests themselves， and they can put pressure on others， including professional testers and examining boards， to improve their tests [14] For example， Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) originally consisted of only multiple-choice items， but no writing tests. Many years passed， testers maintained that it was simply impossible to test the writing ability of hundreds of thousands of candidates by means of a composition: it was impracticable and the results， anyhow， would be unreliable. “Yet in 1986 a writing test (Test of Written English)， in which candidates actually have to write for 30minutes， was introduced as a supplement to TOEFL， and already many colleges in the United States are requiring applications to take this test in addition to TOEFL. The principal reason given for this change was pressure from English language teachers who had finally convinced those responsible for the TOEFL of the overriding need for a writing test which would provide beneficial backwash”[10].

3. Testing the Writing Skills

3.1 The writing skills

Four major skills in communication through language are often broadly defined as listening， speaking， reading and writing. In many situations where English is taught for general purposes， these skills should be carefully integrated and used to perform as many genuinely communicative tasks as possible. Where this is the case， it is important for the test writer to concentrate on those types of test items， which appear directly relevant to the ability to use language for real-life communication. As regards writing， test writers usually assess the students’ writing ability in the form of letters， reports， memos， messages， instructions， and accounts of past events， etc.

The writing skills are complex and sometimes difficult to teach and to test， requiring mastery not only of grammatical and rhetorical devices， but also of conceptual and judgmental elements. Heaton “grouped the many and varied skills necessary for writing good prose into five general components or main areas:

Language use: the ability to write correct and appropriate sentences;

Mechanical skills: the ability to use correctly those conventions peculiar to the written language – e.g. punctuation， spelling;

Treatment of content: the ability to think creatively and develop thoughts， excluding all irrelevant information;

Stylistic skills: the ability to manipulate sentences and paragraphs， and use language effectively;

Judgmental skills: the ability to write in an appropriate manner for a particular purpose with a particular audience in mind， together with an ability to select， organize and order relevant information [11].

3.2 Different writing tasks and different standards

An attempt should made to determine the types of writing tasks with which the students are in face of every day. Royal Society of Arts explicitly states the kinds of writing tasks its examinations test and the standards of writing expected in performance of those tasks.

A successful candidate will have passed an examination designed to test ability to produce a selection of the following types of writing:

(1)Basic level: letter; postcard; diary entry; forms. It requires no confusing errors of grammar or vocabulary; a piece of writing legible and readily intelligible; able to produce simple unsophisticated sentences.

(2)Intermediate level: as basic level， plus guide; set of instructions. It requires accurate grammar， vocabulary and spelling， though possibly with some mistakes which do not destroy communication; handwriting generally legible; expression clear and appropriate， using a fair range of language; able to link themes and points coherently.

(3)Advanced level: as intermediate level， plus newspaper reports; notes. It requires

extremely high standards of grammar， vocabulary and spelling; Easily legible handwriting; no obvious limitations on range of language candidate is able to use accurately and appropriately; ability to produce organized， coherent writing， displaying considerable sophistication[12].

3.3 Obtaining reliable scoring of writing

In order to score as reliably as possible， scorers should obtain appropriate and reliable scoring of writing. The process of scoring can be either holistic or analytic.

3.3.1 Holistic scoring

Holistic scoring (often referred to as impressionistic scoring ) involves the assignment of a single to a piece of writing on the basis of an overall impression of it as a whole[17] Each paper is scored using an agreed scale and an examinee’s score is the average of the combined marks. The notion of impression marking specifically excludes any attempt to separate the discrete features of a composition for scoring purposes.

Holistic scoring has two main advantages:1)it is very rappid;2)if well conceived and well organized， holistic scoring in which each student’s work is scored by four different trained scorers can result in high scorer reliability. However， the problem is that it is affected by fatigue， carelessness， prejudice， etc， of the scorers[13]

3.3.2 Analytic scoring

Ways of scoring which require a separate score for each of a number of aspects of a task are said to be analytic. These aspects usually include: grammar， vocabulary， mechanics， fluency， and cohesion.

There are a number of advantages to analytic scoring. First， it disposes of the problem of uneven development of sub-skills in inpiduals. Secondly， scorers are compelled to consider aspects of performance which they might otherwise ignore. And thirdly， the very fact that the scorer has to give a number of scores will tend to make the scoring more reliable. While it is doubtful that scorers can judge each of the aspects independently of the others， the mere fact of having five “shots” at assessing the student’s performance should lead to greater reliability.

The main disadvantage of the analytic method is the time that it takes. Even with practice， scoring will take longer than with the holistic method. A second disadv- antage is that concentration on the different aspects may pert attention from the overall effect of the piece of writing. Inasmuch as the whole is often greater than the sum of its parts， a composition score may be very reliable but not valid [14]

3.3.3 Holistic scoring or analytic scoring?

“The choice between holistic and analytic scoring depends in part on the purpose of the testing. Then the choice also depends on the choice also depends on the circumstances of scoring” [15]. Particular circumstances will determine whether the analytic method to the holistic method or the holistic method will be the more economical way of obtaining the required level of scorer reliability .

4. An Analysis of Writing Tests in CET-4/6 (From 1992 to 2003)

4.1 Introduction of CET4/6

College English Test， including Band Four and Band Six (CET-4/6)， in line with the Syllabus for College English Teaching， is a national standardized English Test organized by the Higher Education Department of the Ministry of Education. CET- 4/6was prepared from the end of 1986， and officially implemented in 1987， originally in imitation of TOEFL， widely administered standardized test of proficiency in English， developed and administered by the Educational Testing Service (ETS) in the USA.

4.1.1 Constituents of CET-4/6

CET-4/6 aims at propelling the implementation of College English Teaching Syllabus. CET-4/6 consists of five parts: listening comprehension， reading compre- hension， vocabulary and grammar， cloze， and writing .The writing is a subjective part.

4.1.2 Aim of CET-4/6 writing

In order to test students’ ability that how to use English to express their emotion and how to communicate with others. That is to say the main aim of the test is how to use language[16]. The syllabus for CET-4/6 has fixed the type， content， and time arrangement of the testing of each part. The quality of the test can be judged by many criteria， such as validity， reliability， difficulty， discrimination， practicality， and backwash， etc. This thesis will mainly focus on the analysis of the content validity and the scoring criteria of writing tests in CET-4/6.

4.2 Validity of writing

Validity is the most important quality of test interpretation or use， or the extent to which the inferences or decisions we make on the basis of test scores are meaningful， appropriate and useful. Briefly， the validity of a test is the extent to which it measures what it is supposed to measure and nothing else.

One commonly referred to and most important type of validity is content validity. This thesis gives a detailed analysis of the content validity of the CET-4/6 writing tests. Writing as a test way， the writing part is the most validity part， especially in backwash teaching.

4.3 Content validity

A test has content validity if its content constitutes a representative sample of the language skills， structures， etc， with which it is meant to be concerned .This kind of validity depends on a careful analysis of the language being tested and of the particular course objectives. In order to judge whether or not a test has content validity， we need a specification of the skills or structures， etc， that it is meant to cover. Such a specification should be made at a very early stage in test construction . A comparison of test specification of test should be made at a very early stage in test construction. A comparison of test specification and test content is the basis for judgments as to content validity.

“What is the importance of content validity? First， the greater a test’s content validity， the more likely it is to be an accurate measure of what it is supposed to measure. A test in which major areas identified in the specification are under- represented (or not represented at all ) is unlikely to be accurate. Secondly， such a test is likely to have a harmful backwash effect. Areas which are not tested are likely to become areas ignored in teaching and learning” [17]

We judge the content validity of a test generally from the following three main aspects:1) whether or not the testing content is relevant to the testing aim?2) whether or not the testing content is representative?3) whether or not the testing content is fit for the testee.

4.3.1 Whether or not the testing content is relevant to the testing aim?

The requirements of writing in the syllabus for CET-4 are that: the tests should 1)write a composition of about 100 words within 30 minutes， and 2) make sure that the composition they write is able to express their ideas and thoughts correctly， no significant errors of grammar， and coherent in meaning. The aim of the writing part is to test the student’s basic ability of using English to express thoughts in written form.

The requirements of writing in the syllabus for CET-6 is basically the same as those for CET-4 only changes “100 words ” for “120 words ”， “basic ability” for “general ability”.

The requirements of 100 words and 120 words respectively in CET-4 and CET-6 seem to be consistent with the basic ability and general ability of expression thoughts descried in the syllabus for CET-4and CET-6. However， the requirements in the number of words of CET-4/6 actually cannot accord with the practical aim of communication of writing.

About in the beginning five gears of the implementation of CET-4/6， the tests is required to write a composition in which the first sentence of each of the three paragraphs has been given， and the tests just needs to extend the three paragraphs according to those first sentences. Generally speaking， this requirement is reasonable. Because the given three first sentences contain about 40 words， then the number of the words of the whole composition is about 140/160 words， and the length of a composition of 140/160 words is generally considered sufficient for and argumentation. However， the form of the writing in CET-4/6 has already changed. The tests is required now to write a complete composition according to a given topic and outline， but still about 100/120 words， This requirement actually cut short the length of the composition. We can find that it is impossible for the given topic and the outline to be clearly stated within 100/120 words. For example:

(1)We Need to Broaden our Knowledge (June，1994，CET-6)

Science and technology are indispensable to the development of our society.

Social science and natural science permeate each other.

College students in modern society should possess extensive knowledge.

(2)Looking Forward to the 21st Century (June，1992， CET-6)

How is the future of the development of science and technology in the new century?

What benefit the society can get from the new science and technology?

What problem will be caused by the new science and technology?

What is your view about the challenge of the new century?

If we require the testes to write such a complex composition of just about 100/120 words， it is obviously impossible for the testes to use specific details to clearly state their own opinions， and the composition they write is very likely to devoid of content. In this case， the practical aim of communication of writing cannot be achieved. Therefore， the testing content and the testing aim of writing in CET-4/6 are not quite relevant.

4.3.2 Whether or not the testing content is representative?

We know that linguistic competence is an abstract concept， invisible， and impossible to measure directly， so we can only test its visible manifestation and then make inferences about the competence. If we want to test the vocabulary of student， for example， it is impossible for us to test all the words they learn， and we just need to take a sample to test. In this case， the representativeness of the sample can directly influence the testing validity. Therefore， we can understand the representativeness of the sample from the point whether or not the sample fully embodies all the contents that are required to be tested.

In recent years， the writing tests of CET-4/6 are almost all in one form， requiring the testes to write a composition according to the given topic and outline. The outline restricts the content and the structure of the composition and also the pattern of the statement because almost all the testes write the composition simply according to the sequence of the items of the outline. And we can also see from the CET-4/6 writing tests of recent years that the structure of the outline is always in the inductive method. For example:

(1)Is a Test of Spoken English Necessary?(June， 2000，CET-4)

Many people think it necessary to have a test of spoken English. The reasons are that…

Some people hold different opinions…

My view is that…

(2) Should Reading be Selective or Extensive? ( June， 1999，CET-4/6)

Some people think that reading should be selective.

Some people think that reading should be extensive.

My view.

All testees write composition simply according to these outlines， and finally reach the similar conclusions like “So/Therefore…”， or “I think/In my opinion…”. Almost every year， the testee is required to write an argumentation rather than any other different style of writing. What’s more， the argumentations are almost all in one form，

Which lead to the fact that the testee always writes the similar composition ever year.

This kind of testing is not so representative.

4.3.3 Whether or not the testing content is fit for the testee?

“Whether or not the testing content is fit for the testee ?” means that the testing

content should be neither too difficult nor too easy for the testee.

The number of words required in CET-4/6 writing tests is about 100/120.This

Requirement is porced from the requirements of other relevant English writing tests.

The number of words required in College Entrance Examination (CEE) writing test is

about 120.，while that of CET-4 is 100. Does it mean that the student’s writing ability is weakened after two years’ college English learning?

We can also compare CET-4/6 with TOEFL. There is hardly any difference in the

requirements of such parts as listening， vocabulary， grammar， and reading between the

two . However， the requirement of writing of TOEFL is much higher than that of

CET-4/6.TOEFL require the testee to write a composition of about 250-300 words

Within 30 minutes.

The above comparison shows that the low requirement in the number of words is， to a certain extent， responsible for the fact that the writing ability of Chinese students is far behind their ability in grammar， vocabulary， and reading even now.

What’s more， the requirement of writing a syllogistic argumentation according to

the given topic and outline is not quite fit for the testees， either. The situations given in the CET-4/6 writing tests are usually not meaningful enough. For example:

Changes in the Ownership of House(June，2003，CET-6) [18]

(1)Describe the changes in the ownership of houses according to the chart

(2)Analyze the reasons for these changes

(3)Explain the influences of these changes on the inpiduals and the society

State-owned

Private

This kind of writing task fails to motivate the testee to write. The testee usually has no practical thing to write， no purpose for writing， no audience in mind when they are writing.

4.4 Scoring criteria

According to the requirement of writing in the syllabus for CET-4/6，the Committee for the Guide of CET-4/6 lays down specific scoring criteria， which are pided into five grades:

2 – badly organized; training of thoughts in a state of chaos; fragmented language; most sentences having significant errors.

5 ?– basically keeping to the subject; unclearly expressing the thoughts; bad coherence; many significant errors.

8 – basically keeping to the subject; partly unclearly expressing the thoughts; barely coherent writing; quite many linguists errors， some of which significant ones.

11 – keeping to the subject; clearly expressing the thoughts; coherent writing; a few linguistic errors.

14- keeping to the subject; clearly expressing the thoughts; writing in perfect coherence; generally no linguistic errors， only some minor ones.

From the scoring criteria， it is found some problems， firstly， the requirement of highest grade - 14 tends to be simply understood as whether the language is correct or not. In other words， the scorers judge whether the composition is successful or not simply according to the correctness of the language， such as word choice， gram- matical structure， etc， but have no requirements in the expression of content， the rationality of the structure of the discourse， and the use of writing skills. The composition becomes simply the carrier which reflects the linguistic competence， not the means for communication. This kind of scoring criteria of low level will certainly cause many problems to college English writing teaching and learning.

Secondly， if we compare these requirements and scoring criteria of CET-4/6 writing tests with those in the writing textbooks， or with those of the English writing tests in foreign countries， like TOEFL， we can find many differences.

Fawcett believes that an excellent English composition should at least includes: 1)a clear thesis statement; 2)two to four sentences that develop the thesis statement; 3)details， facts， and examples to develop each paragraph; 4)a logical order of paragraphs[19].

The writing test in TOEFL adopts the six-grade marking system. The criteria for the highest mark-6 are as follows;

Clearly demonstrates competence in writing on both the rhetorical and systematic levels， though it may have occasional errors. A paper in this category

is well organized and well developed;

effectively addresses the writing tasks;

uses appropriate details to support a thesis or illustrate ideas;

shows unity， coherence， and progression;

displays consistent facility in the use of language;

demonstrates syntactic variety and appropriate word choice.

From the comparison of these two kinds of scoring criteria， we can find out at least two differences.

(1)

About the content， CET – 4/6 has no requirement， while TOEFL requires adequate details to support the thesis or illustrate ideas.

(2)

About the language， CET – 4/6 requires no linguistic errors basically， while TOEFL has specific requirements in choice of words and building of sentences， like the change of words and sentences.

Of course， regarding the English level of college students in our country and other actual situations， the requirements and criteria should be a little different. However， this doesn’t mean that we need such low requirements and criteria. This kind of requirements and scoring criteria are harmful to the improvement of students’ writing skills and of college English writing teaching. 5. Harmful Backwash Effects of CET-4/6 Writing Tests on College English Writing Teaching

First， teachers are prone to teach writing catering to CET-4/6， regardless the development of students’ ability. Because of the low requirement of just about 100/120 words in the CET-4/6 writing tests， teachers usually ask students to write this kind of short composition as classroom practice or homework.. Maybe it is helpful for improving students’ ability to deal with the examination as it provides a similar situation like a mock exam. However， it is obviously impossible for the students to use specific details to clearly express their own thoughts in such a short composition， and what they write is very likely to be devoid of content. According to an investigation [20]， 51% of the compositions written by college students are deficient in detail. The biggest problem of the English writing ability of Chinese college students

lies in the deficiency of the content， or in the insufficiently unearthing the subject and detail. Both teachers and students mistakenly consider 100/120 words enough to test the writing ability and linguistic competence. What’s worse， because the given outlines in the writing tests of CET-4/6 are always in syllogistic form， teachers usually strengthen students’ ability in writing this syllogistic composition in classroom. As a result， many college students are not able to write any composition of practical aim of communication other than this dull and mechanical syllogistic one.

Second， students are prone to recite the model essays before taking the CET-4/6 in order to get a high mark in the examination .For example， the testees are always required to write an argumentation rather than any other different style of writing. What’s more， the argumentations are almost all in one form， writing a syllogistic composition according to the given topic and outline. As a result， most students recite various model essays. In this case， there is hardly any difference in the composition they write. The process of writing is not a creative activity any more.

Third， teachers are prone to consider the whole writing teaching as a process of correcting students’ composition， finding out linguistic errors， and then giving a mark according to the scoring criteria of CET-4/6 writing tests. When teachers correct and comment on students’ work， they simply concentrate on the superficial grammatical errors like the tense， voice of verbs， the usage of articles， the collocation of words， etc， but pay little attention to the overall arrangement of the discourse， the skills in the choice of words and building of sentences， the handling of the rhetorical figures， let alone the details of the content， We know that the requirement of “no grammatical errors” is far inadequate. For example， given a topic" My Ideal Job "，a college student can write a composition. So can a middle school student. Both of can clearly express their thoughts without any grammatical error. However， their writing abilities are certainly at different levels:

(1)Watching too much TV will affect your studies.(Low level)

Heavy exposure to TV will affect one’s studies.(High level)

(2)Many college students like to be teachers.(Low level)

The teaching career enjoys much popularity among college students.(High level)

Obviously， both of these expressions have no grammatical error， but they show students’ different writing abilities. If students are satisfied with the expressions of low level， their motivation to learn language will be weakened， and they would not like to spend time in improving the expression. So it is proposed to treat the whole writing teaching process seriously.

These are the three main harmful backwash effects of the writing tests in CET-4/6on college English writing teaching.

6. Suggestions on College English Writing Teaching

Through the analyses of the content validity， the scoring criteria， and the harmful backwash effects of the writing tests in CET4/6， several suggestions are provided on college English writing teaching.

First， the most important thing for the English teachers to do is to concentrate on the improvement of students’ writing ability， not the improvement of their marks of the writing tests in CET-4/6.This is not only a principle but also an essential aim of college English writing teaching.

Second， it is suggested that teachers practice students’ skills of writing compositions of different styles and registers， but not the syllogistic argumentations in their writing， not recite or use the regular and model sentences.

Third， teachers should choose appropriate topics and meaningful situations for students to write. The topics and situations are suggested to be such that they motivate students to write and to communicate with others in daily life， in order to improve their expression and speaking language.

Fourth， when teachers correct and comment on students’ compositions， they are expected to concentrate on the overall writing ability of students， including arrangement of the discourse， the skills in the choice of words and building of sentences， the handing of the rhetorical figures， the details of the content as well as the grammatical knowledge. This is helpful to improve their linguistic competence.

7.Conclusion

Both testing and teaching are so closely interrelated that it is virtually impossible to work in either field without being constantly concerned with the other. The proper relationship between testing and teaching is that of partnership. College English Test is a national standardized English test， to which both the universities and the society pay more attention. Writing test is a kind of integrative testing which examines both students’ productive skill and receptive skills. As a result it can help students how to use English to express their emotion and how to communicate with others fluently， but it requires effective content， valid outline， as well as effective English writing teaching. College English teaching and learning are both examination-oriented. They need interflow at any time.

The analyses in this thesis prove that the content validity of CET-4/6 writing tests is not so satisfactory and the scoring criteria are not so proper . Meanwhile， they exert many harmful backwash effects on college English writing teaching. In order to solve the problem， it is suggested that college English teachers can change their English writing teaching and concentrate on the improvement of students’ writing ability. There are some other issues about CET-4/6 writing test that remains to be solved. These and other related problems are to be further explored in future.

References

[1] 潘鈞. 大學(xué)英語(yǔ)寫作探析[J] .外語(yǔ)與外語(yǔ)教學(xué)， 1999， 8， P24.

[2] 吳錦. 張?jiān)谛? 英語(yǔ)寫作教學(xué)新探[J] .外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究， 2000， 3， P25.

[3] Bachman. L.F. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press， 1990， P20.

[4] Heaton. J. B. Writing English Language Tests [M]. London: Longman， 1988， P15.

[5] 同[4]. P15

[6] 同[4]. P16.

[7] 同[4]. P19.

[8] Bachman. Adrian S.Palmer. Language Testing in Practice[M]. 上海教育出版社，1996，P3。

[9] Hughes. A. Testing for Language Teachers [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press，1989， P1.

[10] 同[9]. P5.

[11] 同[4]. P135.

[12] 同[4]. P135—136.

[13] 同[9]. P86--87.

[14] 同[9]. P94.

[15] 同[9]. P97.

[16] 楊惠中. C.Weir. 大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四六級(jí)考試效度研究[M].上海外語(yǔ)教育出版社，1998， P36.

[17] 同[9]. P22

[18]丁曉鐘. 大學(xué)英語(yǔ)考試歷年真題精解[M].學(xué)苑出版社，2003， P233。

第7篇：四級(jí)寫作范文

【關(guān)鍵詞】負(fù)遷移 漢英思維差異 英語(yǔ)寫作 語(yǔ)言輸入

一、中介語(yǔ)與負(fù)遷移

有關(guān)負(fù)遷移理論的研究最早出現(xiàn)在20世紀(jì)的50年代和60年代。在1972年瑟林克爾（Selinker）最早提出中介語(yǔ)這一概念，即“第二語(yǔ)言和外語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)者在學(xué)習(xí)中產(chǎn)生的一種過(guò)渡性語(yǔ)言?！彼猿审w系，又在不斷變化，向目的語(yǔ)（target language）靠近。中介語(yǔ)越靠近目的語(yǔ)體系，則學(xué)習(xí)者的外語(yǔ)水平越高；反之，中介語(yǔ)越接近母語(yǔ)，則學(xué)習(xí)者的外語(yǔ)水平越低。目前我國(guó)英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)體系就是典型的中介語(yǔ)體系。錯(cuò)誤分析理論指出，語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)中，學(xué)習(xí)者的錯(cuò)誤由不同的過(guò)程產(chǎn)生，其中包括借用母語(yǔ)的模式即語(yǔ)言遷移（language transfer）。語(yǔ)言遷移又分為正遷移（positive transfer）和負(fù)遷移（negative transfer），負(fù)遷移也叫做干擾（interference）即套用母語(yǔ)模式或規(guī)則而產(chǎn)生的錯(cuò)誤或不適合的目的語(yǔ)出現(xiàn)。

二、漢英思維差異

由于各個(gè)民族有不同的歷史背景，文化習(xí)俗和語(yǔ)言，他們的思維習(xí)慣就會(huì)有很明顯的本民族思維方式特征。許多學(xué)者都對(duì)漢英文化差異進(jìn)行深入系統(tǒng)的研究，從他們的研究成果中我們可以看到漢英的思維差異主要體現(xiàn)在一下幾個(gè)方面：

1.漢語(yǔ)是具象思維，英語(yǔ)是抽象思維

2.漢語(yǔ)重意合，英語(yǔ)重形合

3.在語(yǔ)篇結(jié)構(gòu)上，漢語(yǔ)的思維模式是螺旋形的，而英語(yǔ)的思維模式是直線型的。薩丕爾―沃爾夫（Sapir-Wholf）提出的著名的“語(yǔ)言決定論”指出，語(yǔ)言對(duì)人們的思維具有直接的決定性的影響。由于語(yǔ)言和環(huán)境以及文化背景的巨大差異，人們的思維方式就有巨大的差異；反過(guò)來(lái)，思維方式的差異就會(huì)作用于語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)，影響人們的外語(yǔ)習(xí)得。由于英漢兩種思維習(xí)慣上的巨大差異，學(xué)生的英語(yǔ)寫作中難免會(huì)受到來(lái)自母語(yǔ)漢語(yǔ)的負(fù)遷移的影響，從而產(chǎn)生各種各樣的錯(cuò)誤。

三、漢語(yǔ)思維在英語(yǔ)寫作中的負(fù)遷移

寫作是一個(gè)復(fù)雜的思維認(rèn)知過(guò)程，思維創(chuàng)造過(guò)程和思維轉(zhuǎn)換過(guò)程。從目的語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)者的寫作中可以反映出他們的目的語(yǔ)思維能力， 而寫作中出現(xiàn)的各種類型的錯(cuò)誤也可以反映出母語(yǔ)思維對(duì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)習(xí)的影響。教學(xué)過(guò)程中發(fā)現(xiàn)，學(xué)生平時(shí)在寫英語(yǔ)作文時(shí)往往擺脫不了漢語(yǔ)思維的影響，寫出的文章不論在語(yǔ)篇組織還是遣詞造句中都有明顯的漢語(yǔ)痕跡。

1.語(yǔ)篇組織層面。漢語(yǔ)的螺旋形思維模式?jīng)Q定了漢語(yǔ)寫作中往往采用的是迂回闡述，引出觀法，或者含而不露，不明確提出觀點(diǎn)。而英語(yǔ)的直線型思維決定了英語(yǔ)寫作中往往先開門見山直抒胸臆，說(shuō)明觀點(diǎn)。在英語(yǔ)專業(yè)四級(jí)作文“Will Tourism Bring Harm to Environment”的寫作練習(xí)中，很多學(xué)生在第一段引入部分中先談“隨著改革開放和經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展，國(guó)家富強(qiáng)了，人民生活水平提高了，很多人會(huì)選擇外出旅游……”這樣的表達(dá)方式在以英語(yǔ)為母語(yǔ)的人看來(lái)，也許會(huì)產(chǎn)生離題或繞題太遠(yuǎn)的感覺。

2.句子結(jié)構(gòu)層面。在句子結(jié)構(gòu)層面，漢語(yǔ)重意合，英語(yǔ)重形合。意合即意義的連接主要靠句子內(nèi)部的邏輯關(guān)系；形合即句子的意義主要靠語(yǔ)法手段。所以在漢語(yǔ)的句子中，講究的是形散而意不散，意義上的連接不是通過(guò)關(guān)系詞來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)，而是通過(guò)邏輯關(guān)系實(shí)現(xiàn)，所以漢語(yǔ)中常常出現(xiàn)并列結(jié)構(gòu)，句式猶如竹竿，一個(gè)短句一個(gè)短句相連，像一節(jié)一節(jié)的竹節(jié)節(jié)節(jié)相連。在英語(yǔ)的句子中，講究形合，強(qiáng)調(diào)句子的形式和結(jié)構(gòu)的完整性，多用主從結(jié)構(gòu)，定語(yǔ)從句，分詞短語(yǔ)，介詞短語(yǔ)等表示句子的主從關(guān)系，很多時(shí)候用關(guān)系詞來(lái)表達(dá)意義的連接。因此，英語(yǔ)的句子結(jié)構(gòu)更像一棵大樹，結(jié)構(gòu)完整，層次分明，主從明確。

其次，在句子結(jié)構(gòu)方面，漢語(yǔ)和英語(yǔ)還有一個(gè)很明顯的區(qū)別，即句子的重心的前后問題。英語(yǔ)和漢語(yǔ)的句子的邏輯重心一般都落在結(jié)論，推斷，結(jié)果和事實(shí)上，但是重心在句子中的位置區(qū)別很大，具體說(shuō)就是英前漢后。漢語(yǔ)句子一般在句首首先說(shuō)明外部環(huán)境條件，交代好時(shí)間地點(diǎn)，原因條件等等，最后才說(shuō)重要信息，所以漢語(yǔ)常用短句或簡(jiǎn)單句放在句子開始，邏輯重心落在句子尾部。而英語(yǔ)句子中一般在句首直截了當(dāng)交代主要信息，其他次要信息多以短語(yǔ)形式置于句末。而很多學(xué)生在寫作過(guò)程中由于母語(yǔ)的負(fù)遷移，忽略了英語(yǔ)的重心前置的特點(diǎn)，寫出這樣的句子：After super， my mom and I went out for a walk. 而符合英語(yǔ)思維習(xí)慣的表達(dá)應(yīng)該是： I went out for a walk with my mom after super.

另外，在句子結(jié)構(gòu)方面，英語(yǔ)和漢語(yǔ)還有主語(yǔ)存在和隱形的區(qū)別。在英語(yǔ)中，主謂結(jié)構(gòu)的句子占絕大多數(shù)。英語(yǔ)句子非常注重主語(yǔ)，而且?guī)缀醵加兄髡Z(yǔ)。而在漢語(yǔ)中，一些句子的主語(yǔ)通常可以省略，在某些情況下，甚至主語(yǔ)必須省略，否則句子不通順。所以與英語(yǔ)相比，漢語(yǔ)主語(yǔ)省略句多，無(wú)主句多。如果學(xué)生用漢語(yǔ)的思維模式來(lái)寫英語(yǔ)句子，很多時(shí)候也會(huì)忽略主語(yǔ)，寫出句法錯(cuò)誤的無(wú)主句，比如：He is eighty years old. Because of his paralytic stroke， has been confined to his room for years. 這個(gè)句子中，原本該有的主語(yǔ)he被忽略了。只有添上主語(yǔ)，在句子結(jié)構(gòu)上才是完整的，正確的，符合英語(yǔ)表達(dá)的習(xí)慣。

3.詞匯層面。首先，英語(yǔ)是通過(guò)形式來(lái)表達(dá)意義的語(yǔ)言，所以在英語(yǔ)中名詞，動(dòng)詞都有時(shí)態(tài)或數(shù)的變化。而在漢語(yǔ)中，名詞或動(dòng)詞本身都不會(huì)因?yàn)闀r(shí)態(tài)或數(shù)發(fā)生改變。這是英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)初級(jí)階段需要最先解決的問題，也是語(yǔ)法中最初級(jí)的東西。然而在英語(yǔ)作文中，仍然經(jīng)常能發(fā)現(xiàn)這一類的問題，這說(shuō)明了漢語(yǔ)思維對(duì)英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)的負(fù)遷移還是巨大的。類似的問題還有，在漢語(yǔ)中很多名詞和動(dòng)詞是同一個(gè)詞，而在英語(yǔ)中只有在合適的地方用了正確的形式才是符合規(guī)范的。比如“經(jīng)濟(jì)”這個(gè)詞，在漢語(yǔ)“經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展”和“當(dāng)?shù)亟?jīng)濟(jì)”中，“經(jīng)濟(jì)”分別是做形容詞和名詞的，而在英語(yǔ)相應(yīng)的短語(yǔ)中，就要用到它的不同形式“economical development”和“l(fā)ocal economy”來(lái)表達(dá)。這個(gè)層面上的錯(cuò)誤也是由漢語(yǔ)的負(fù)遷移帶來(lái)的。

其次，漢語(yǔ)是具象思維，是動(dòng)態(tài)的語(yǔ)言，多用動(dòng)詞；而英語(yǔ)是抽象思維，是靜態(tài)的，語(yǔ)言中較多的使用比較抽象的名詞和介詞。漢語(yǔ)思維對(duì)寫作上的負(fù)遷移在詞匯的這個(gè)方面就體現(xiàn)為不擅長(zhǎng)用抽象名詞作主語(yǔ)，不擅長(zhǎng)用介詞來(lái)簡(jiǎn)潔靜態(tài)的表達(dá)思想。

另外，在詞匯層面，漢語(yǔ)負(fù)遷移還體現(xiàn)在忽略詞語(yǔ)的內(nèi)涵意義。內(nèi)涵意義是一個(gè)詞或短語(yǔ)由于指稱而具有的超出概念意義以外的交際價(jià)值，它是概念意義以外的意義，往往與客觀事物的本性和特點(diǎn)相聯(lián)系。有的詞雖然在不同的語(yǔ)言中他們的概念意義相近或相同，但其內(nèi)涵意義卻相差很遠(yuǎn)。另外還有一些事物或現(xiàn)象，在兩種文化當(dāng)中都存在或類似，字面意義又很接近，但實(shí)際卻相差甚遠(yuǎn)。

四、克服漢語(yǔ)思維在英語(yǔ)寫作中負(fù)遷移的對(duì)策

語(yǔ)言學(xué)家Lado在《語(yǔ)言教學(xué)：科學(xué)的方法》中指出：“我們不掌握文化背景就不能教好語(yǔ)言。語(yǔ)言是文化的一部分，因此，不懂得文化的模式和準(zhǔn)則，就不可能真正學(xué)到語(yǔ)言?！睆倪@些話中可以看出，語(yǔ)言和文化密不可分，在教學(xué)過(guò)程中，應(yīng)該用文化語(yǔ)言觀去知道英語(yǔ)教學(xué)，努力培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的文化習(xí)得意識(shí)，增強(qiáng)學(xué)生對(duì)于文化差異的敏銳性和科學(xué)的理解性，減少母語(yǔ)文化的干擾，防止和避免外語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)中母語(yǔ)文化的負(fù)遷移。比如在詞匯教學(xué)中，除了詞匯的概念意義之外，還要涉及到相關(guān)的文化背景知識(shí)和詞源典故，以加強(qiáng)學(xué)生對(duì)詞匯內(nèi)涵意義的掌握，這樣才能在寫作過(guò)程中準(zhǔn)確用詞，提高寫作水平。

根據(jù)Krashen的監(jiān)控模式學(xué)說(shuō)，有意識(shí)地學(xué)到的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)能起到監(jiān)控和編輯的作用，用來(lái)檢查和修正語(yǔ)言的輸出。背誦是一種有意識(shí)的語(yǔ)言輸入活動(dòng)，通過(guò)有意識(shí)地輸入，學(xué)生可以逐步積累寫作過(guò)程中需要的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)和篇章建構(gòu)技巧，并對(duì)寫作輸出過(guò)程進(jìn)行監(jiān)控和修正，從而盡可能的擺脫母語(yǔ)的干擾，更好的運(yùn)用目的語(yǔ)。另外，背誦輸入可以加強(qiáng)學(xué)生語(yǔ)言知識(shí)的積累和鞏固，將顯性的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)轉(zhuǎn)化成隱性的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)，培養(yǎng)和提高學(xué)生的語(yǔ)感，這些對(duì)于學(xué)生擺脫漢語(yǔ)負(fù)遷移，更熟練的運(yùn)用目標(biāo)語(yǔ)都用積極的促進(jìn)作用。

寫譯結(jié)合。通過(guò)這個(gè)方法，引導(dǎo)學(xué)生對(duì)兩種語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行對(duì)比，加強(qiáng)學(xué)生對(duì)英漢兩種語(yǔ)言在思維模式，語(yǔ)言層面上包括句法結(jié)構(gòu)，選詞等方面的差異的理解，使學(xué)生熟悉兩種語(yǔ)言的區(qū)別，減少漢語(yǔ)思維的負(fù)遷移，從而提高學(xué)生的寫作能力。

另一種語(yǔ)言輸入方法閱讀也可以幫助學(xué)生增強(qiáng)對(duì)英語(yǔ)思維模式的適應(yīng)和熟悉，積累和掌握地道的英語(yǔ)表達(dá)方法。因此老師可以鼓勵(lì)和指導(dǎo)學(xué)生進(jìn)行大量的閱讀，使學(xué)生可以用積累的語(yǔ)言知識(shí)寫作，從而提高語(yǔ)言輸出質(zhì)量。

參考文獻(xiàn)：

[1]陳懷文.背誦和掌握外語(yǔ)[J].大學(xué)英語(yǔ)，1998（3）.

[2]王大偉.輸出新論[J].外語(yǔ)界，1997（4）.

第8篇：四級(jí)寫作范文

【編者按】

欲提筆，未成行；今執(zhí)筆，淺蘸香墨。以一顆淺淡之心，一雙纖素之手，墨染素箋，寫下對(duì)鯤鵬研修人員魅力之欣賞、妙筆生花之贊賞，與，一份油然而生之敬意。

常常會(huì)感謝上蒼，賦予我寫文的能力！因?yàn)槲抑?，有了文字才有了我們的相識(shí)，才有了這朵因文字而盛開的鯤鵬之花，才有了彼此間于屏前的這一份守望！

——讀《寫作教學(xué)"進(jìn)行時(shí)"教學(xué)設(shè)計(jì)觀》有感

河南省駐馬店地區(qū)正陽(yáng)縣陡溝鎮(zhèn)尚田村小學(xué) 張新娜

海倫。凱勒說(shuō)過(guò)："當(dāng)一個(gè)人感覺到有高飛的沖動(dòng)時(shí)，他將再也不會(huì)滿足于在地上爬行。"我現(xiàn)在特別喜歡這句話，仿佛它就是專為我而寫，是鯤鵬給了我斗志，讓我有了高飛的沖動(dòng)。而之前的我——一所偏僻的農(nóng)村小學(xué)的語(yǔ)文老師，雖然骨子里是不甘平庸的，但"近朱者赤，近墨者黑",置身于一個(gè)消極度日的團(tuán)隊(duì)中，我像一只掉隊(duì)的孤雁，找不到可以棲息的枝頭。漸漸的，在彌漫著倦怠、抱怨、得過(guò)且過(guò)的氛圍中逐漸消極下去，沉淪下去……

直到今天，我終于找到了心靈的棲息地，與高人為伍，與智者同行，才不會(huì)迷失自我。于是，我勇敢地捧起何老師的這本我原本連翻都不愿翻的"硬骨頭"啃了起來(lái)。雖然想法幼稚，文筆拙劣，但也要勇于留下思考的點(diǎn)點(diǎn)滴滴……

今天，讀了寫作教學(xué)"進(jìn)行時(shí)"的設(shè)計(jì)觀一節(jié)，何老師提出來(lái)本位觀、系統(tǒng)觀、實(shí)效觀和操作觀。寫作教學(xué)"進(jìn)行時(shí)"作為一種全新的兒童寫作課程，已深深地吸引了我，我不禁暗暗發(fā)誓下學(xué)期一定要用書中的理論指導(dǎo)自己的作文教學(xué)實(shí)踐，開創(chuàng)出一條屬于自己的作文教學(xué)之路！于是我對(duì)"操作觀------教學(xué)設(shè)計(jì)的基本模式"情有獨(dú)鐘。反復(fù)讀幾遍后，有了自己的理解。

寫作教學(xué)"進(jìn)行時(shí)"之操作觀，著眼于為廣大教師提供一個(gè)可供操作的基本模式，讀后感覺何老師在手把手地教我如何實(shí)施教學(xué)，從而達(dá)到"簡(jiǎn)簡(jiǎn)單單教寫作，輕輕松松學(xué)寫作"的效果，真是貼心至極！這一教學(xué)基本模式的"四部曲"為"任務(wù)聚焦"、"運(yùn)思激活"、"嘗試練習(xí)"、"融匯延伸"下面逐一談我的理解。

任務(wù)聚焦，明確寫作目標(biāo)

目標(biāo)就是課堂教學(xué)的標(biāo)靶，靶子沒有立好，再怎么用力也是落空的。寫作教學(xué)進(jìn)行時(shí)主張讓教師與兒童進(jìn)入教學(xué)過(guò)程前都有明確任務(wù)，知曉本次的教學(xué)目標(biāo)和學(xué)習(xí)目標(biāo)。那么，教學(xué)目標(biāo)都有哪些呈現(xiàn)方式呢？

直接宣布目標(biāo)

何老師的"讀繪本故事，模仿說(shuō)話、寫話"的目標(biāo)呈現(xiàn)方式就屬此類。

師：我們一起讀讀本節(jié)課的題目------《讀繪本故事，模仿說(shuō)話、寫話》。大家看看，本節(jié)課，我們要做的事有幾件？（課件展示）

生：3件。第一件事，讀繪本故事。第二件事，模仿說(shuō)話。第三件事，模仿寫話。

師：很好，讓我們從繪本故事開始，邊讀邊模仿，到下課的時(shí)候，看看到底完成了幾件事。

此種方式開門見山，直奔主題，干脆利落。

創(chuàng)設(shè)情境呈現(xiàn)目標(biāo)。請(qǐng)看以下片段：

師：同學(xué)們，又是一個(gè)春意盎然、柳綠花紅的季節(jié)。天上的云，河邊的柳樹，回家的燕子，都在向我們報(bào)告春的消息。

（出示"征文通知"）

為了進(jìn)一步激發(fā)小學(xué)生寫作的興趣，提高作文的能力，《小學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)報(bào)》現(xiàn)面向全體同學(xué)舉行征文比賽。要求寫家鄉(xiāng)的一種植物（或一片樹林，一塊草地，一叢野花），側(cè)重寫出這種植物的特點(diǎn)和作用。

師：同學(xué)們讀了征文通知后，一定也想?yún)⒓舆@次活動(dòng)吧？那么，你能告訴老師征文的要求嗎？

……

教師通過(guò)創(chuàng)設(shè)情境呈現(xiàn)教學(xué)目標(biāo)，激發(fā)了學(xué)生的寫作熱情，變"要我寫"為"我要寫".

啟發(fā)談話法

（音樂和圖畫）春天美，春天秀。絲絲綠，枝枝紅。(fanwen.chazidian.com)片片黃，股股香。老師和大家一起到到田野、到公園、到山坡春游，感受到了美好的春天。今天，我們就一起來(lái)說(shuō)說(shuō)春天里的發(fā)現(xiàn)吧。在師生看似閑聊中，明確了學(xué)習(xí)任務(wù)，課堂氣氛其樂融融。

呈現(xiàn)目標(biāo)的方式還有很多，比如在解決疑難中確定目標(biāo)、商議確定目標(biāo)等等。在上課開始就出示目標(biāo)，意在讓兒童和教師都做到心中有數(shù)。目標(biāo)共享，既是在課堂開始就有明確的方向，又讓兒童心里明朗，知道自己"將要學(xué)什么""能學(xué)到什么".同時(shí)也是教師對(duì)自我的提醒：不偏不離、鎖定目標(biāo)，實(shí)施有效教學(xué)。明確目標(biāo)也便于教師在課堂結(jié)束前對(duì)照檢查，關(guān)注目標(biāo)的達(dá)成情況。

激活運(yùn)思，讓兒童有話可寫

思維是語(yǔ)言的"先行官".教寫作就是教思維。在教學(xué)設(shè)計(jì)中如何激活思維呢？何老師指出兒童寫作對(duì)鮮活、生動(dòng)、新奇、亮麗的感官刺激依賴比較強(qiáng)，這些都直接影響寫作運(yùn)思的活躍程度。因此，激活運(yùn)思常采用以下幾種方式：

情境創(chuàng)設(shè)，創(chuàng)設(shè)與寫作目標(biāo)相符合的情境，讓兒童進(jìn)入

感受，置換角色，充分體驗(yàn)后寫作

舊知回憶，引入新知

運(yùn)用先進(jìn)的多媒體獨(dú)特優(yōu)勢(shì)激活思維

在此四法中，我常用的是體驗(yàn)法和媒體刺激法。記得三年級(jí)上期，我想布置大家寫一個(gè)自己喜歡的小動(dòng)物——小白兔。在班內(nèi)一問才知道近一半同學(xué)沒見過(guò)或不是很了解小白兔，這樣學(xué)生該如何寫呢？對(duì)了！我大伯家喂養(yǎng)的不是有嗎？我喜出望外，趕緊去他家抱一只。第二節(jié)作文課，我提著紙箱來(lái)到教室，學(xué)生都很好奇。我說(shuō)："看老師給你們帶什么來(lái)了？"說(shuō)著從紙箱里拿出白兔放在講臺(tái)上，教室里頓時(shí)熱鬧起來(lái)。我樂呵呵地說(shuō)："今天我們要來(lái)寫一寫小白兔朋友?，F(xiàn)在我們按照從整體到部分的順序，仔細(xì)觀察，也可以輪流上來(lái)摸一摸。"聽我這樣一說(shuō)，學(xué)生們興奮極了，爭(zhēng)先恐后地上來(lái)摸，有的用手輕撫它的絨毛，有的盯著它的三瓣小嘴瞧個(gè)沒完，搗蛋鬼王小平居然把它抱在懷里，臉貼臉，吧唧吧唧親了小白兔幾口！我趁熱打鐵："說(shuō)一說(shuō)，你的觀察結(jié)果。"

"小白兔的毛雪白雪白的，毛既柔軟又細(xì)膩。"

"它東張西望的，好像在找媽媽。"

"白兔的眼睛像紅寶石，可愛極了。"

……

學(xué)生說(shuō)得差不多了，我見他們依然愛不釋手，就沒有著急布置寫作任務(wù)。何不讓學(xué)生和白兔多親密接觸幾天，讓他們親自飼養(yǎng)、和它共同生活一周，這樣孩子的體驗(yàn)不是更深刻更全面嗎？我這樣想著也就這樣做了。一周后，孩子們交上來(lái)的作文果然內(nèi)容豐富、甚是精彩。我想，正是親身體驗(yàn)給孩子帶來(lái)了最直觀的、最真切的感受，他們才能下筆如有神吧。

還有一次，我讓孩子寫荷花，也有同學(xué)沒見過(guò)的，實(shí)物又不好找，于是我就想到了多媒體。在輕松悅耳的音樂聲中，一幅幅美麗動(dòng)人的畫面徐徐展開，有綠油油的荷葉，有各種姿態(tài)的荷花、有搖曳的小蓮蓬……這聲、光、影、色、動(dòng)感、變化，一下子抓住了學(xué)生的眼球，思維瞬間被激活。

任何一種方式的運(yùn)用，都是為了激活學(xué)生的思維，讓他們"易于動(dòng)筆，樂于表達(dá)。"所以，在教學(xué)中，所以方式都要視具體學(xué)情和教學(xué)目標(biāo)而定，各方法靈活運(yùn)用，變換出現(xiàn)，才不至于使兒童感到厭煩，才能真正起到激活思維的作用。

片段練習(xí)，讓兒童放膽來(lái)寫

寫作教學(xué)"進(jìn)行時(shí)"的寫作練習(xí)都是以寫"片段"的形式出現(xiàn)，把漫長(zhǎng)泥濘的寫作之路分割成一小段一小段，這樣，學(xué)生就能相對(duì)輕松地走完當(dāng)下的一小段，進(jìn)而一步步走完全程。我在教學(xué)游戲作文《吹泡泡》時(shí)，"泡泡的美"的片段，學(xué)生不知從哪些方面來(lái)寫它的美，用詞也貧乏，語(yǔ)句干癟，是個(gè)難點(diǎn)。而"怎樣吹的"片段，學(xué)生總找不好恰當(dāng)?shù)男?dòng)作來(lái)表達(dá)，也是個(gè)重難點(diǎn)。所以，這兩個(gè)片段都在課堂中完成，寫作時(shí)有同伴、老師的相助，學(xué)生寫起來(lái)容易多了。

融匯延伸，留住童年的精彩

傳統(tǒng)的寫作課堂，作文寫完了，教學(xué)也就結(jié)束了。而寫作教學(xué)進(jìn)行時(shí)的課堂結(jié)束后，那載著童年的美好回憶的寫作教學(xué)的余韻依然繞梁，飄蕩著，回旋著，綿延不絕……

著名特級(jí)教師張祖慶的音樂作文《我向往----------》的第三板塊的設(shè)計(jì)就和何老師提出的"融匯延伸"有著異曲同工之妙。請(qǐng)看片段：

第三板塊：拓展閱讀，升華向往

師：同學(xué)們描述的生活確實(shí)令我們向往。尤其是生活在大城市的好多成年人也渴望暫別喧囂，期盼寧?kù)o。他們希望在無(wú)人打攪的地方，過(guò)天堂一般的日子。美國(guó)有一位作家叫亨利。大衛(wèi)。梭羅，他告別親友，拋開喧囂的城市，來(lái)到一個(gè)叫瓦爾登湖的地方，在那整整住了兩年，寫了一本很有名的書，名字叫《瓦爾登湖》。里邊有幾段文字非常美，這樣的生活也值得我們向往。

（課件出示文字，配上班得瑞的音樂，日光海岸》，師深情朗讀）

在溫和的黃昏中，我常坐在船里弄笛。鱸魚在我的四周游泳，好像我的笛音迷住了他們一樣……

師：聽老師讀了這段文字，你有什么感受？

生：這樣的小湖，這樣的生活太讓人向往了。

生；就是做水中的鱸魚我也心甘情愿。

……

師：是啊，這樣優(yōu)美的文字，這樣寧?kù)o的瓦爾登湖，怎能不讓人向往！同學(xué)們，這就是《瓦爾登湖》的不同版本，（出示《瓦爾登湖》的封面若干），老師建議大家讀讀這本書，再去看自己的文章，也許你會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)也許你的文章中，還有許多地方值得修改。讀大師的書，與大師為伴，我們的人格將會(huì)越來(lái)越高尚，我們的文筆將會(huì)越來(lái)越曼妙。愿我們的同學(xué)也擁有這美麗的文筆。也愿同學(xué)們?cè)诿烂畹臅?，放飛自己的向往。

最后，讓我們?cè)诘医鹕男≡?shī)《神奇的書》中結(jié)束這節(jié)課------------

（師生齊誦小詩(shī)）

第9篇：四級(jí)寫作范文

希望之夢(mèng)。

太陽(yáng)是紅燦燦的；

天空是湛藍(lán)；

樹梢是嫩綠的；

迎春花是嬌黃的。

夏天是綠色的，

成長(zhǎng)之夢(mèng)。

太陽(yáng)有些炙人；

樹梢是翠綠的；

荷花如亭亭玉立的姑娘，

開放著。

秋天是金色的，

收獲之夢(mèng)。

樹梢上結(jié)著又大又紅的果實(shí)；

地上鋪著厚厚的落葉地毯；

那令人欣慰的麥浪一起一伏。

冬天是白色的，

孕育之夢(mèng)。

天雖冷，但不干澀；

大地萬(wàn)物都是白茫茫的；

在那白雪中若隱若現(xiàn)的點(diǎn)點(diǎn)紅梅；